英語翻譯
In a general sense,a disease is an abnormal condition
of an organism that impairs bodily functions.
Many different factors,intrinsic or extrinsic to a person,
plant or animal,can cause disease.Examples of
intrinsic factors are genetic defects or nutritional deficiencies.
An environmental exposure,such as second-
hand smoke,is an example of an extrinsic factor.
Many diseases result from a combination of
intrinsic and extrinsic factors.For some of them,no
cause or set of causes has been identified yet.The
broader body of knowledge about human diseases
and their treatment is medicine.Pathology is the
study and diagnosis of diseases through examination
of organs,tissues,cells and bodily fluids.It can be divided into anatomical pathology and clinical
pathology with the latter also known as laboratory
medicine.Disease diagnosis by anatomical pathology
generally involves gross and microscopic visual examination
of tissues with special stains employed to
visualize specific proteins and other substances.Rudolf
Virchow (1821–1902) is generally recognized to
be the father of microscopic pathology.While the
microscope had been invented earlier,Virchow was
one of the first prominent physicians to emphasize
the study of manifestations of disease that were visible
only at the cellular level.Virchow’s student
Julius Cohnheim (1839–1884) combined histologic
techniques with experimental manipulations,making
him one of the first experimental pathologists.Cohnheim
also pioneered the use of the frozen section.A
version of this technique is still widely employed by
modern pathologists to render diagnosis and provide
other clinical information.New research techniques,
such as electron microscopy,immunohistochemistry
and molecular biology have expanded the means by
which biomedical scientists can study disease.